History of the Tricolore

The flag was created soon after, in 1790, but with the colours the reverse of what they are today, i.e. with red at the hoist and the blue to the fly. The order was reversed in 1794 to the familiar modern form.

Associated with Revolutionary and later Imperial France.

 

The three colours in vertical stripes were first used as a canton on Naval flags in 1790, and extended to the whole field in 1794. One of the flags in the naval signalling alphabet is still a red-white-blue vertically striped flag - ie like the modern French flag, but with the colours reversed. The French National Convention adopted the modern blue-white-red flag as the national flag on 15 February 1794 (or 27 pluviôse an II in the revolutionary calendar). 

 

The relevant part of thedecree says, in translation:

II. The national flag shall be formed of the three national colours, set in three equal bands, vertically arranged so that the blue is nearest to the staff, the white in the middle, and the red flying.

The Tricolore went out of use with Napoléon's defeat at Waterloo. It was replaced by a white flag (c/f the old royal flag) from 1814 to 1830. During the July revolution of that year the Tricolore was re-established by the Marquis de Lafayette under the relatively liberal regime of Louis-Philippe. It has remained in use ever since. The present Constitution of the French Republic (1958) declares: L'emblème national est le drapeau tricolore, bleu, blanc, rouge (The national emblem is the tricolor, blue, white, red, flag). When hoisted vertically, the French national flag is often forked.

The three vertical coloured bands were not always of equal width, and on the French naval jack they are still not of equal width. The idea is that unequal bands can look more equal that genuinely equal ones when the flag is flying. Whether or not it works in real life, is difficult to tell - it certainly does not work well for flat rectangles on the page (see the flag on the left).

The flag features on an official French logo shown on the left, along with Marianne and French national motto. It is sometimes represented as a coat of arms as on the right, most people not knowing and not recognising the (semi-official) coat of arms of France.

The French National Flag

French National Flag

The French National Flag. Only one visual symbol has the official sanction of the Constitution: the tricolore flag (tricolore drapeau). It is sometimes referred to as a tricolour (UK) or tricolor (US) or tricoleur.
The colours are those of Paris (blue and red) combined with the Royal white (the dispossession and execution of the King still lay in the future when the tricolore was first used).

The motto of the French Republic

The motto of the French Republic is "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" (Liberté, Equalité, Fraternité).

The notions of liberty, equality and fraternity were linked by Fénelon at the end of the 17th century, and the linkage became widespread during the Age of Enlightenment. 

 

At the time of the French Revolution, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" was one of the many mottoes in use, but was by no means the only contender as a motto for the revolutionaries. 

 

Robespierre advocated in a speech on the organization of the National Guards (in December 1790) that the words "The French People" and "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" be written on uniforms and flags, but his proposal was rejected.

From 1793 onwards, Parisians painted the following words "Unity, indivisibility of the Republic; liberty, equality or death" on the façades of their houses. This was imitated by the inhabitants of other cities, but they were soon asked to erase the end of the phrase (as it was too closely associated with the Terror).

This motto was inscribed again on the pediments of public buildings on the occasion of the celebration of 14 July 1880.

Although it was often called into question, the familiar motto finally established itself under the Third Republic, and was written into the 1958 Constitution.

It appears explicitly in the constitutions of 1946 and 1958, and may be found on many everyday items - including coins and postage stamps.

The Constitution of france

The Constitution of 4 October 1958 provides the institutional basis for the Fifth Republic. Its preamble explicitly refers to two previous texts, to which the French people solemnly proclaim their attachment: the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, and the preamble to the 1946 Constitution. The 1958 Constitution is short: only 88 articles (plus those of 1789 and 1946). It has been amended several times, for example to instituteelection of the President of the Republic by direct universal suffrage (1962), to incorporate a new clause defining the criminal liability of members of the Government (1993), and to establish a single parliamentary session (1995). The French Republic has only one explicit principle. It is set out in the fifth clause of Article 2 of the Constitution: "Government of the people, by the people and for the people" (borrowed from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address). As one commentator dryly notes notes "this principle is the one the Republic has espoused, without in fact always showing an equally effective concern for its implementation".


 more information please visit :   http://www.languedoc-france.info

CLIMATE of FRANCE

Four climactic types prevail in France. A true temperate maritime climate is found in the west, near the coasts, and is exemplified at BREST, where winters are mild (7 deg C/45 deg F in January), summers are cool (16 deg C/61 deg F in July), and rainfall is frequent (800 mm/32 in) during 180 days of the year. A mid-latitude continental climate prevails in the interior of the country, with hotter summers Sun and cloud (average July temperature of 18 deg C/64 deg F in PARIS) and more rigorous winters (average January temperature of 2 deg C/36 deg F in Paris), and rain falls on fewer days of the year.

A mountain climate prevails at high elevations, where temperatures are influenced mainly by altitude, and winters are generally bitterly cold and prolonged. Precipitation increases with elevation and occurs in the form of snow in winter, many villages in the high valleys receiving more than 50 days of snow each year. Briancon, in the Alps, has a mean temperature of -2 deg C (28 deg F) in January, and 17 deg C (63 deg F) in July; annual precipitation averages 587 mm (23 in). A Mediterranean type of climate is found in a zone about 20 to 60 km (12 to 35 mi) wide along the Mediterranean coast. It is characterized by hot, dry summers, mild and humid winters, and a small number of rainy days during the year. In MARSEILLE, 550 mm (22 in) of rain falls during 60 days of the year, and the sun shines for more than 3,000 hours each year. The average temperature is 7 deg C (45 deg F) in January and 23 deg C (73 deg F) in July.

Reference : http://www.discoverfrance.net

Languages of France

The official language of the French Republic is French (art. 2 of the French Constitution), and the French government is, by law, compelled to communicate primarily in French. The government, furthermore, mandates that commercial advertising be available in French (though it can also use other languages); see Toubon Law. The French government, however, does not mandate the usage of French in non-commercial publications by private individuals or corporations or in any other media.

A revision of the French constitution creating official recognition of regional languages was implemented by the Parliament in Congress at Versailles in July 2008.

The 1999 Report written for the government by Bernard Cerquiglini identified 75 languages that would qualify for recognition under the government's proposed ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. 24 of those languages are indigenous to the European territory of the state while all the others are from overseas areas of the French Republic (in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and South America).

Although ratification was blocked by the Constitutional Council as contradicting the Fifth Republic's constitutional provision enshrining French as the language of the Republic, the government continues to recognise regional and minority languages to a limited extent (i.e. without granting them official status) and the Délégation générale à la langue française has acquired the additional function of observing and studying the languages of France and has had et aux langues de France added to its title. The category of languages of France (in French: langues de France) is thus administratively recognised even if this does not go as far as providing any official status.

The regional languages of France are sometimes called patois, but this term (roughly meaning "dialect") is often considered derogatory. Patois is used to refer to supposedly purely oral, syntactically loose languages, but this Francocentric perception does not, for instance, take into account that Occitan was already written when French was not and its literature has been thriving throughout the last thousand years, with even a Nobel Prize for Frédéric Mistral in 1904.

Language education

The topic of the teaching of regional languages in public primary and secondary schools is controversial. Proponents of the measure state that it would be necessary for the preservation of those languages and to show respect to the local culture. Opponents contend that local languages are often non-standardised (thus making curricula difficult), of dubious practical usefulness (since most are spoken by a small number of people, without any sizable corpus of publications) and that the curriculum and funding of public schools are already too strained. The topic also leads to wider controversial questions of autonomy of the régions. Regarding other languages, English, Spanish and German are the most commonly studied foreign languages in French schools.

In April 2001, the Minister of Education, Jack Lang , admitted formally that for more than two centuries, the political powers of the French government had repressed regional languages[citation needed], and announced that bilingual education would, for the first time, be recognised, and bilingual teachers recruited in French public schools.

Cross-border languages

Some of the languages of France are also cross-border languages (for example, Basque, Catalan, Picard, Norman, Franco-Provençal, Dutch, Occitan and others), some of which enjoy a recognised or official status in the respective neighbouring state or territory (including French itself in Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and in the Val-d'Aoste).

References :http://en.wikipedia.org

Romance languages

The Romance languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family, more precisely of the Italic languages subfamily, comprising all the languages that descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of ancient Rome. There are more than 800 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas and Europe, as well as many smaller regions scattered throughout the world. Because of the extreme difficulty and varying methodology of distinguishing among language, variety, and dialect, it is impossible to count the number of Romance languages now in existence, but a restrictive, arbitrary account can place the total at approximately 25. In fact, the number is much larger, and many more existed previously. Nowadays the six most widely spoken standardized Romance languages are Spanish/Castilian (about 500 million), Portuguese (about 240 million), French (about 250 million), Italian, Romanian, and Catalan. Among numerous other Romance languages are Corsican, Emiliano-Romagnolo, Lombard, Occitan, Gascon, Piedmontese, Aromanian, Sardinian, Sicilian, Venetian, Galician, Asturian, Neapolitan and Friulian.

 References :http://en.wikipedia.org

Old French

Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century. It is a direct descendent of Old Gallo-Romance. It was then known as the langue d'oïl (oïl language) to distinguish it from the langue d'oc (Occitan language, also then called Provençal), whose territory bordered that of Old French to the south. The Norman dialect was also spread to England, Ireland, the Kingdom of Sicily and the Principality of Antioch in the Levant.

Chanson de geste

The chansons de geste, Old French for "songs of heroic deeds or lineages", are the epic poems that appear at the dawn of French literature. The earliest known examples date from the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, nearly a hundred years before the emergence of the lyric poetry of the trouvères (troubadours) and the earliest verse romances. The French chanson gave rise to the Old Spanish tradition of the cantar de gesta.


The origin of the chanson de geste as a form is much debated. The nineteenth century medievalist Gaston Paris, recognising that they drew on an oral epic tradition, identified this with narrative songs (sometimes called cantilenae) that are occasionally mentioned by contemporary authors in other genres.

Such songs about important events were sometimes being sung very soon after the military events described. As a first example, a contemporary historian records that the names of those who fell at the very minor ambush at Roncesvalles were on everyone's lips sixty years after the event, indicating the growth of a legend quite out of proportion to the original incident—a legend that would result, long afterwards, in the various versions of the Song of Roland that are now known. As a second example, there are references to contemporary songs on the subject of the First Crusade in two historical sources on that Crusade, supporting the statement by Graindor of Brie, composer of the surviving Chanson d'Antioche, that he had drawn on the original work of the jongleur and participant Richard le Pèlerin. The Spanish Cantar de Mio Cid shows that a comparable narrative tradition existed in Spain at the same period.

Gaston Paris also believed that the early singers followed the courts of kings and military leaders, as did Norse skalds (lyric poets) and some Celtic bards, but the evidence on this is less conclusive.

Another school of thought, championed by Joseph Bédier, holds that the poems were the invention of the poets who wrote them. Bédier further suggests that some of the stories were first invented by monks, who used them to advertise pilgrimage sites by connecting them not only with saints but also by legendary heroes of folklore. Magical relics frequently appear in the tales. This point of view has fewer proponents since the development of Oral theory; it is additionally problematic because monks were specifically forbidden to dabble in the literature of the jongleurs.

References : http://en.wikipedia.org

French-Middle Ages

The first works that began appearing recorded in French were epic stories told in verse form, called "chansons de geste". They were performed in aristocratic feudal courts by minstrels or troubadours called jongleurs or trouvèrs, who wandered from one town to the next. The subject matter of these stories was based mainly on courtly love and the heroic deeds of Christian knights.

Celtic folklore also provided the inspiration for many verse tales and stories during this time. A popular poet of the time, and a master at these verse tales was Chrétien de Troyes, who lived in the 12th century.

Celtic folklore also provided the inspiration for many verse tales and stories during this time. A popular poet of the time, and a master at these verse tales was Chrétien de Troyes, who lived in the 12th century.

When the 12th century came to a close and made way for the new century, the fabliau, another kind of verse tale became increasingly popular. Consisting of shorter, simpler, realistic and sometimes coarse and ironic works, some of these tales were adapted and included by Geoffrey Chaucer, an English author, in his well-known work "The Canterbury Tales". Another popular collection of tales, rather more sophisticated, was the collection of tales known as "Le Roman de Renart" ("Reynard the Fox"). They were written by different authors, many of them unidentified.

In the 13th century the work that attained popularity was a verse allegory known as "Le Roman de la Rose" ("The Romance of the Rose"). The poem was written in parts, the first part having been created by Guillaume de Lorris while Jean de Meun completed the second part. This poem was so significant in that it provided very influential for later writers such as 14th century Guillaume de Machaut.

The popularity of poetry continued increasing and by the 15th century poetry contests with awards were held frequently. The most prominent lyric poet of the time was François Villon.

Theatre in medieval times was also mostly in verse and until the 13th century, performed only by clerics and main themes that were focused on were of a biblical nature. Secular theatre began emerging in that same century and continued throughout the subsequent centuries. By this time, plays were being acted out by laymen such as jongleurs and tradesmen.

Prose was used very little in these times. Literature consisted mainly of verse; however, historians would record events using accounts written in prose. These included accounts of the Crusades, the monarchy of the times and other events of the period.

References:   http://www.sprachcaffe.com

France

French Republic is a state in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is bordered (clockwise starting from the northeast) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Monaco; with Spain and Andorra to the south. France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel. In addition to these borders on the European continent France has land borders with Suriname and Brazil through French Guiana, as well as with The Netherlands through the Collectivity of Saint Martin. It is the largest west-European country and possesses second-largest Exclusive Economic Zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 mi2), just behind the one of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 mi2).

France has been a major power for several centuries with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and in the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands.

France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The French Republic is defined as indivisible, secular, democratic and social by its constitution. France is one of the most developed countries and possesses the fifth largest economy by nominal GDP and seventh largest economy by purchasing power parity. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually. France is a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It also is a founding member state of the European Union and is the largest one by area. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world with ~300 active warheads as of May 25, 2010. In 2007, France was listed 14th on the Human Development Index and 24th on the Corruption Perception Index.

Culture of France

The culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and internal forces and groups. France, and in particular Paris, has played an important role as a center of high culture and of decorative arts since the seventeenth century, first in Europe, and from the nineteenth century on, world wide. From the late nineteenth century, France has also played an important role in modern art, cinema, fashion and cuisine. The importance of French culture has waned and waxed over the centuries, depending on its economic, political and military importance. French culture today is marked both by great regional and socioeconomic differences and by strong unifying tendencies.

Whether in France, Europe or in general, consists of beliefs and values learned through the socialization process as well as material artifacts.Culture guides the social interactions between members of society and influences the personal beliefs and values that shape a person's perception of their environment: "Culture is the learned set of beliefs, values, norms and material goods shared by group members. Culture consists of everything we learn in groups during the life course-from infancy to old age.

The conception of "French" culture however poses certain difficulties and presupposes a series of assumptions about what precisely the expression "French" means. Whereas American culture posits the notion of the "melting-pot" and cultural diversity, the expression "French culture" tends to refer implicitly to a specific geographical entity (as, say, "metropolitan France", generally excluding its overseas departments) or to a specific historico-sociological group defined by ethnicity, language, religion and geography. The realities of "Frenchness" however, are extremely complicated. Even before the late nineteenth century, "metropolitan France" was largely a patchwork of local customs and regional differences that the unifying aims of the Ancien Régime and the French Revolution had only begun to work against, and today's France remains a nation of numerous indigenous and foreign languages, of multiple ethnicities and religions, and of regional diversity that includes French citizens in Corsica, Guadeloupe, Martinique and elsewhere around the globe.

The creation of some sort of typical or shared French culture or "cultural identity", despite this vast heterogeneity, is the result of powerful internal forces — such as the French educational system, mandatory military service, state linguistic and cultural policies — and by profound historic events — such as the Franco-Prussian war and the two World Wars — which have forged a sense of national identity over the last 200 years. However, despite these unifying forces, France today still remains marked by social class and by important regional differences in culture (cuisine, dialect/accent, local traditions) that many fear will be unable to withstand contemporary social forces (depopulation of the countryside, immigration, centralization, market forces and the world economy).

In recent years, to fight the loss of regional diversity, many in France have promoted forms of multiculturalism and encouraged cultural enclaves (communautarisme), including reforms on the preservation of regional languages and the decentralization of certain government functions, but French multiculturalism has had a harder time of accepting, or of integrating into the collective identity, the large non-Christian and immigrant communities and groups that have come to France since the 1960.

The last fifty years has also seen French cultural identity "threatened" by global market forces and by American "cultural hegemony". Since its dealings with the 1993 GATT free trade negotiations, France has fought for what it calls the exception culturelle, meaning the right to subsidize or treat favorably domestic cultural production and to limit or control foreign cultural products (as seen in public funding for French cinema or the lower VAT accorded to books). The notion of an explicit exception française however has angered many of France's critics.

The French are often perceived as taking a great pride in national identity and the positive achievements of France (the expression "chauvinism" is of French origin) and cultural issues are more integrated in the body of the politics than elsewhere (see "The Role of the State", below). The French Revolution claimed universalism for the democratic principles of the Republic. Charles de Gaulle actively promoted a notion of French "grandeur" ("greatness"). Perceived declines in cultural status are a matter of national concern and have generated national debates, both from the left (as seen in the anti-globalism of José Bové) and from the right and far right (as in the discourses of the National Front).

According to Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture, the culture of France is moderately individualistic and high Power Distance Index.

Now, the interracial blending of some native French and newcomers stands as a vibrant and boasted feature of French culture, from popular music to movies and literature. Therefore, alongside mixing of populations, exists also a cultural blending (le métissage culturel) that is present in France. It may be compared to the traditional US conception of the melting-pot. The French culture might have been already blended in from other races and ethnicities, in cases of some biographical research on the possibility of African ancestry on a small number of famous French citizens. Author Alexandre Dumas, père possessed one-fourth black Haitian descent,and Empress Josephine Napoleon who was born and raised in the French West Indies from a plantation estate family.We can mention as well, the most famous French singer Edith Piaf whose grandmother was a North African from Kabylie.

For a long time, the only objection to such outcomes predictably came from the far-right schools of thought. In the past few years, other unexpected voices are however beginning to question what they interpret, as the new philosopher Alain Finkielkraut coined the term, as an "ideology of miscegenation" (une idéologie du métissage) that may come from what one other philosopher, Pascal Bruckner, defined as the "sob of the White man" (le sanglot de l'homme blanc). These critics have been dismissed by the mainstream and their propagators have been labelled as new reactionaries (les nouveaux réactionnaires), even if racist and anti-immigration sentiment has recently been documented to be increasing in France at least according to one poll. Such critics, including Nicolas Sarkozy, the current President of France, take example on the United States' conception of multiculturalism to claim that France has consistently denied the existence of ethnic groups within their borders and has refused to grant them specific rights.

England - Druidry

Vintage engraving showing the The Massacre
of the Druids and the landing of Julis Ceasar
(small panel at the bottom of the main picture),
engraving from 1854

Druidry, recently recognised as an official religion for the first time in England, is generally focussed on the worship and respect of nature and the promotion of harmony within it. It is usually put into the same bracket as Wicca or witchcraft. It was denied as a formal religion for centuries because some viewed it simply as a spiritual state or attitude that could be adopted by people of any religion. While this remains partly true, it has been ruled that the belief system warrants an official religious status.

This religion originates from tales of the times of the ancient Iron Age Celtic Druids. However, a formal investigation into its background shows that druidism actually displays no traceable link to the ancient Celts. This is a major finding as, for a long time, the entire supposition was that the Celtic culture had given rise to this intriguing belief system.

In the first part of the 1900’s, druidry was based very much on the idea of a brotherhood, and organisations were formed amongst the druids that were considered to be formal fraternities. These groups emulated the Freemasons, and used the age-old romanticised image of English druids and bards as the symbols of what made spirituality truly British. Some groups remained cultural; a kind of excuse for a structured fraternity. Other groups took the movement more seriously, even joining other major movements of the time, such as naturism. As the years went on, druidry evolved. Each organisation or group adopted slightly varying practices, setting them apart and making this a dynamic, fluid belief system. In the past few decades, efforts have been made to formalise druidic practices and align them more with the ancient paganism from which they come. However, because so little is known about Iron Age druids, this has been challenging.

When studying druidism, various courses are covered. These include:

• The elements (fire, water, air and earth)
• The life cycle
• Death
• Celtic mythology
• Self-transformation
• Treelore
• Herbalism
• Stonelore

Nobody is required to convert from their current religion to become a druid. There are three subdivisions, according to the ancient druids:

1. Bards – these ones specialise in using the art of symbolism in their language and imagination. In ancient times, the bards were expected to memorise all of the legends of druidry as well as the history and genetic lines of the people. They focused on improving their memories to astounding degrees.
2. Ovates – these students focused on rituals, herbalism, meditating with ancestors, switching from one world to the next and trees.
3. Druid – the focus of druids was on the lore of gods and goddesses. They also specialised in stones and alignments, and spent much time trying to find their special calling (e.g. as a teacher).

Because this religion has been such a fluid one, changing on almost an individual level, it is difficult (if not impossible) to define. However, some of the core beliefs of druidry (although not shared by all druids) include:

• Honouring the ancestors
• Respecting the land
• Venerating nature in general
• The idea that, within nature (even inanimate objects), there exist souls
• Some druids worship multiple gods and goddesses
• Reincarnation (but, because they believe that even trees and soil have a soul, a person can be reincarnated into any other natural form)
• Ancestor worship

The religion of druidry is characterised by various ceremonies, which are held in sacred places, such as Stonehenge and Glastonbury. These rituals are marked by tradition. Special robes are worn and altars are built. There are also various druidic festivals held throughout the year.

Being recognised as a formal religion not only gives druidism an official status of respect, but also grants it certain tax breaks as well as the dignity of being considered part of more commonly accepted religions (such as Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Hinduism, for example).


For more information, please view: http://www.druidry.org

England's National Symbols

One of the great bronze lions at the base of
Nelson's Column in London's Trafalgar Square

National symbols are defined as the symbols or icons of a national community (such as England), used to represent that community in a way that unites its people. This unity is based on a common pride, which is incited by different representations; i.e. visual (e.g. the national flower), verbal (e.g. the national anthem) and iconic (e.g. the flag). These symbols are then used in national events and celebrations, inspiring patriotism as they include every member of that particular community, regardless of colour or creed.

England enjoys many national symbols, which are used extensively in political, social, cultural and even religious spheres, to represent this diverse land. These include:

The Flag
The flag of England is represented by a red cross on a white background. This is known as St George’s Cross and has its origins in the Crusades (12th and 13th centuries), when soldiers were identified by this red-coloured cross on their white tunics. St George was claimed to be the Patron Saint of England at the time, so the cross became associated with him.

The National Floral Emblem – The Tudor Rose
The Tudor Rose, also known as The Rose of England, was adopted as a symbol of peace and merges a white rose (representing the Yorkists) and a red rose (representing the Lancastrians). During the War of the Roses, these two sides fought over the control of the royal house.

The Royal Banner of England
This banner is also known as the Banner of the Royal Arms, amongst its other names. It is the official English banner of arms and represents the sovereignty of the rulers of England (as opposed to loyalty to the country itself). It comprises three horizontally positioned gold lions, which face the observer. Each has a blue tongue and blue claws and is set against a deep red background.

The Royal Arms of England
With much the same design as the Royal Banner, this is a coat of arms that is used in representation of the country as well as of its monarchs.

St Edward's Crown
This is one of the senior British Crown Jewels. It is the official coronation crown and is used in the coronation of English, British, and Commonwealth monarchs. It is also used as an image on various items, such as coats of arms and badges.

National Animal – The Lion
Because the lion is symbolic of bravery, it was frequently used to depict the courageous warriors of medieval England. Today, it remains the national animal of the country and is used extensively in sports’ team names, logos, icons, and so on.

National Flower – The Rose
England is usually represented by a red rose, but other colours can and have also been used.

National Tree – The Oak Tree
The oak tree represents strength, beauty and survival through trials. As such, it is the perfect representation of this enduring country. King Charles II escaped parliamentarians after his father was executed and hid in an old oak tree. Since then, this escape has been called the Royal Oak and is a well-known account for many locals.

National Food – Fish ‘n Chips
All over the world, people associate fish and chips with England. There are many fabulous eateries that offer this dish. The fish (usually a white, flaky, mild-flavoured fish) is battered and deep-fried, and served with potato chips (often sprinkled liberally with salt and vinegar).

National Drink – Tea
Tea has been linked to England for centuries. Although these herbal infusions come in a variety of flavours and makes, the favoured norm remains Ceylon and red bush teas.

The British Museum

Curving modern roof covering courtyard at the British Museum
casting shadows over the older stone architecture

This ample museum reveals the secrets of the human race, displaying seven million different objects as evidence. In addition to the many exhibitions and displays, there is also the opportunity for visitors to have a look at what goes on behind the scenes of a museum, witnessing the conservation and storage techniques of the valuable remnants of times past. There is a permanent collection on display as well as a dynamic set of exhibitions and events, which change on a regular basis.

The British Museum offers free access and is open every day from 10h00 to 17h30. There are multimedia guides available in 10 languages. Tours cover the themes of Leaders and Rulers, Writing, Money, Animals, Same-sex Desire and Gender Identity, and Time. This museum also showcases an impressive array of cultures, which is sure to intrigue young and old alike.

Website: www.britishmuseum.org

The Foundling Museum

This museum is dedicated to the story of the Foundling Hospital, which was London's first sanctuary for abandoned children. The art, interior décor and history that are displayed within its walls are fascinating and touching. The structure is the restored building that was once adjacent to the original hospital. Unfortunately, the hospital was demolished in 1928. The Foundling Museum was established in 1998 by the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, today known as Coram.

There are audio tours available. These audio pieces are also available for free download (in MP3 format) on their website.

Today, The Foundling Museum places high esteem on educational initiatives and offers schools’ curriculum-linked sessions for Foundation, Key Stages 1 to 4, GCSE, A Level and AS Level.

Website: www.foundlingmuseum.org.uk

England's Climate

English cathedral on a perfect summers day

England is part of the United Kingdom (along with Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland). It is situated to the west of Eurasia and has an extensive coastline. Such a positioning is responsible for its fairly complex climate, which demonstrates the meeting of the dry continental air and the moist maritime air. This creates rather large differences in temperature ranges and also leads to the occurrence of several ‘seasons’ over the course of one day.

Generally speaking, the parts of England closest to the Atlantic Ocean experience the mildest temperatures, although these are also the wettest and experience the most wind. The areas in the east, on the other hand, are drier and less windy, but also display cooler temperatures.

England is warmer and sunnier than any of the other countries making up the United Kingdom. The month with the most sunshine is July, which is also England’s driest month.

On average, the sun shines for about 1340 hours every year in England. The south coast has the clearest skies (i.e. the least cloud cover) due to the prevailing winds in that area. This means that counties like Kent and Sussex benefit from significantly more sunshine, attracting local and international visitors to their shores. The cloudiest areas are in the northern and western parts of England as well as in the mountainous areas.

England’s climate is expected to change over the course of a few decades due to pollution and global warming. Annual temperatures are expected to rise by two degrees Celsius and summer highs are expected to soar by three degrees by the year 2050. Rainfall will decrease in general but winter rainfall will increase.

Spring

Spring is from March to May and is cool and dry. Noonday highs can become quite warm, particularly as summer approaches. However, snow is still possible, right up until the middle of April. Temperatures range between about 0 and 10 degrees Celsius during the English spring time.

Summer
Between June and August, England experiences its highest temperatures. While this is the driest season, localised thunderstorms (usually in the southern, eastern and central parts of the country) ensure that the gardens are kept lush and green. The south eastern parts of England generally experience higher noonday temperatures, which reach around 30 degrees Celsius at the hottest, while most days average around 17 to 20 degrees.

Autumn
Autumn occurs between September and November and produces unstable weather conditions throughout England. Different pressure systems and cold air creates an increased amount of precipitation. Autumn temperatures range between about 1 and 13 degrees Celsius.

Winter
The cold winter lasts from December until February. This is a very wet and windy season and snowfall is common in many parts of England. Temperatures can range from as low as 0 degrees Celsius to about 10 degrees Celsius, with very chilly winds. During late winter, when the Atlantic Ocean has cooled down, the climate stabilises, particularly along the coastal regions.

Snow
Snowfall is an annual event, with only the quantities differing over regions and time. Over the past few centuries, decades and years, snowfall has decreased due to the ever-changing effects of global warming.

For more information, please view: http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk

National Song Of England

Thomas Augustine Arne, who
was born in 1710 and died in 1778

Although England does not have a National Anthem of its own, its official National Song is the National Anthem of England; namely “God Save the Queen”. This is also the Commonwealth Anthem. This national song is sung before international football and rugby matches.

“God Save the Queen” was composed in the 18th century by Thomas Augustine Arne, who was born in 1710 and died in 1778. The first time it was ever sung was in 1745, during the Jacobite invasion of England. The Jacobites were trying to restore the House of Stuart, a Scottish entity, to the throne. They were being led by Charles Edward Stuart (also known as Bonny Prince Charlie). Charles Edward Stuart was proclaimed the King of England after defeating George II’s army. Because this invasion was seen as a huge threat to the monarchy, a petition was included in this National Anthem to protect the monarchy:

Lord, grant that Marshal Wade

May by thy mighty aid,

Victory bring.

May he sedition hush and like a torrent rush,

Rebellious Scots to crush,

God save the King.

This line is no longer included as it is anti-Scottish and, therefore, politically incorrect and irrelevant.

It should be noted that the anthem changes according to whether England is under the rulership of a King or Queen. All pronouns indicating the King or Queen will be changed accordingly.

The standard version of the National Anthem of the United Kingdom and the National Song of England follows:

God Save the Queen (or King)

God save our gracious Queen,

Long live our noble Queen,

God save the Queen:

Send her victorious,

Happy and glorious,

Long to reign over us:

God save the Queen.

O Lord, our God, arise,

Scatter her enemies,

And make them fall.

Confound their politics,

Frustrate their knavish tricks,

On Thee our hopes we fix,

God save us all.

Thy choicest gifts in store,

On her be pleased to pour;

Long may she reign:

May she defend our laws,

And ever give us cause

To sing with heart and voice

God save the Queen

For more information, please view: http://www.culture.gov.uk

England’s Flag

England's Flag

England’s flag is represented by a red cross set on a white background. This cross is known as the St George’s Cross and has represented England is various forms from as far back as the Middle Ages and the Crusades (a religiously sanctioned series of military campaigns, which were waged by a large proportion of Western Europe in their efforts to restore Christianity and reclaim Christian ownership of modern-day Israel). Because of its use since the 16th century, it has come to be one of the most prominent and well-known symbols of England. The red cross was also an emblem of a knighthood system originating to England’s medieval times, known as the Most Noble Order of the Garter. With such global recognition and acclaim, it was an obvious emblem for the official flag of the country.

St George, after whom the cross is named, was the patron saint of the country during the 1200’s. There were legends of this courageous saint’s having slain a vicious dragon. St George was a Roman soldier and a priest of the Guard of the Diocletian. During the Crusades, the soldiers would wear plain white tunics, thus the birth of a white background. The cross was used to represent this martyred saint in his religious capacities and was his emblem during his years of battle. He is considered a saint in the Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches.

The Pope had decided that all English Crusaders should wear red tunics with white crosses, while the French opted for red on white. The English then wanted to reclaim their emblem of a red cross on a white tunic and, in 1188, the kings of each country decided to exchange their flags. However, some of the French soldiers continued to wear their old tunics, resembling the English. For this reason, the red cross on the white background eventually became the symbol for the Crusaders, irrespective of their nationality.

Even Georgia (a country in Russia) used this iconic emblem of St George in the Middle Ages as he also a patron saint of this country.

During the Battle of Evesham in 1265, the English royalists wore a red cross on a white uniform to identify themselves as being separate from the rebel barons that had worn white crosses during the Battle of Lewes just some months before. Ten years later, the St George’s Cross was used as England’s identifying emblem during the Welsh War.

Some historians believe that the St George’s Cross was adopted from Genoa’s flag in 1190 for use on English sailing vessels that were going into the Mediterranean and Black seas so that the Genoese fleets would protect them.

The flag of the United Kingdom (also known as the Union Jack) has incorporated the St George’s Cross from the English flag to a major degree. The St Patrick’s Cross (a red “x” on a white background) has also been used to indicate the merger of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland. This flag continues to be used to represent the United Kingdom, despite the fact that only Northern Ireland remains a member of the union.

England - Art and Culture

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) on engraving from 1845.
English philosopher, statesman, lawyer,
jurist, author and scientist. Engraved
by J.Cochran from a picture by Van
Somer and published by J.F.Tallis.

The art and culture of a country like England shape and determine, to a large extent, the very identity of that

place. To experience this aspect of England, one immerses themselves in its people, places, and the unique elements

that define it.

In general, art and culture is revealed in the following aspects:

• Architecture

• Language(s)

• Sports

• Cuisine

• Literature

• Music

• Philosophy

• Folklore

• Laws and legal system

• Religion

• Science

• Symbols

England is a land of creativity and innovation. Locals and visitors are assured of new and exciting elements that

are continuously being refreshed. This is especially true of epicentres such as London and Manchester. There are

even specific projects that are designed to engender such creativity amongst the local population. Examples of this

type of initiative are the Tate Liverpool and the Tate Modern in London. But museums and galleries are not the only

homes of art. Sculptures and art festivals also testify to the creative genius of England. Sculptures range from

ancient figures of historical import to life-size bronze carvings of human beings (such as exist on the roof of De

la Warr Pavilion in Bexhill or the Another Place exhibition on Crosby Beach, Liverpool).

One of the largest art festivals is held in Birmingham and is called Artsfest. The artistic talents being showcased range from classical music and song to traditional dancing and stand-up comedy. This festival is usually held in September.

Theatre is another very important part of the English culture and is, in fact, one of the reasons people visit the country. Theatrical shows, such as Cats, The Lion King and The Phantom of the Opera, are modern reflections of the ancient Shakespearean productions that once graced the English stages. Today, shows in London remain one of England’s primary tourist attractions.

England has been the birthplace of a number of incredible musical artists too. Music remains a very important part of this country’s culture. Styles range from the orchestral genius of Manchester, Birmingham and Bournemouth to timeless favourites like Blur, Oasis, David Bowie, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, The Beatles, Coldplay and Lily Allen. The Birmingham International Jazz Festival continues to lure music enthusiasts to come and witness the world’s greatest jazz artists.

Music festivals in England are very popular and include:

• Exeter's Vibraphonic

• Nantwich Jazz & Blues Music Festival

• Bath Music Festival

• Harewood House Proms Spectacular in Leeds

• Reading Festival

Food festivals showcase the sheer wonders and varieties of foods that coexist in England, thanks to the many cultures that make up its unique population. The Manchester Food and Drink Festival, CAMRA Beer Festival and Chocolate Week in London are just some of the culinary features that are sure to provide a tasty extravaganza for young and old alike.

Owing to its rich history, England’s architecture is another important element of its culture; one that tells the tales of battles, victories, defeats, love, death and religion. Churches, stately homes, abbeys and ruins remain as remnants of the fascinating past that shaped the future. These include several World Heritage Sites, as deemed by UNESCO. Some of these include:

• Durham Castle and Cathedral

• Stonehenge

• The Roman Baths

England is, indeed, a land of great artistic and cultural import, providing locals and visitors alike with a fabulous insight into the makings of a diverse destination.

For more information, please view: http://www.culture.gov.uk

England's Modern History

Vintage engraving showing a scene from 19th Century London England.
Showing the steam cranes at Limehouse Dock

Once the Kingdom of Great Britain was established as such, various innovations in science and engineering meant that it progressed significantly. Various English initiatives and the Scottish Enlightenment played major roles in this development. Eventually, the British Empire became the largest of its kind ever in history.

The British Empire drove the Industrial Revolution, which led to a dramatic improvement in the living and economic conditions of the country. Farming, mining, engineering and manufacturing were all affected hugely by this revolution as advanced equipment was used and in demand. The infrastructure of the land was also improved exponentially as roads, railway tracks and waterways were constructed for transportation of goods and people. In 1761, the Bridgewater Canal was opened. This pioneered the development of a canal system throughout England. 1825 was another prominent year as this was when the Stockton and Darlington Railway was opened. This was the first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway in the world.

The Industrial Revolution lured potential workers from the farming areas of the countryside into the city centres to get higher paying jobs within the industrial centres. Even the farming industry was revolutionised as tools and implements took on new and more efficient dimensions (often negating the need for as many labourers as before and forcing these ones into the cities in search of jobs).

The concept of Britain’s strength and fortitude was reinforced by its relative stability throughout the French Revolution as well as its conquering of the Napoleonic forces (during the Napoleonic Wars) by both Lord Nelson (at sea) and the Duke of Wellington (on land). The united forces of Britain, Wales and Scotland felt a sense of invincibility as they remained victorious. Trade within Britain became a prestigious privilege and its navy and military forces were well respected the world over.

When World War I began in 1914, English soldiers fought for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Thousands of these troops were killed in battle. Despite this loss, England assumed the same role in World War II some 20 years later. After these wars, the development of technology (especially automobile-related technology) progressed in leaps and bounds.

England continues to be a major epicentre of industrial, economic, social and cultural import. It is a multilingual, multinational country that represents its complex history in the form of its heritage, its architecture, its art and its vast literary works.

For more information, please view: http://www.england.org.za/

England - Early Modern Era

King Henry VIII of England reigned from 1509 to 1547.
One of the most famous monarchs of England,
he launched of the English Reformation and broke
with the Church in Rome, creating the
Church of England. He had six wives
including Anne Bole

The Early Modern Era of England began during the reign of the Tudors. Italian members of the court introduced higher levels of art, education and schooling, bringing the Renaissance to England. This caused a general development of the country’s culture. It was during this time that England began to develop its naval abilities which, in turn, meant that they could now explore further than ever before. This exploration was prompted by the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the Mediterranean Sea, preventing trade with the East for all of the Christian states of Europe.

In 1534, King Henry VIII broke the rules when he disassociated himself from the Catholic Church because of issues relating to the divorcing of one’s spouse. At that stage, the Act of Supremacy held that the King was automatically the head of the Church of England. However, when his daughter, Mary I, ruled, she attempted to bring Catholicism back to the country. She was followed by her sister, Elizabeth I, who again broke away from it and enforced the supremacy of Anglicanism. King Henry VIII also amalgamated Wales into the Kingdom of England because this was the land of his ancestors.

While Queen Elizabeth I was in power, Sir Francis Drake (an English sea captain) defeated the Spanish Armada. England went on to found a colony in the Americas under Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. This colony was named Virginia. At this time, England was competing with Spain for American territory. In addition, England was competing with France and Holland for territory in the east, where spices and textiles were to be found in abundance. All of this exploration and discovery was enabled by the development of the naval industry during this time. 

The English Civil War was between the Parliamentary supporters and those who supported King Charles I. However, this war was only part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, in which England, Scotland and Ireland were involved. The Parliament supporters won this civil war, which led to a Commonwealth after Charles I was executed. Oliver Cromwell was the leader of the forces under Parliament, and promptly declared himself Lord Protector in 1653. When he died, his son took over this position, but resigned shortly thereafter. This led to Charles II’s being invited back to be king with the Restoration. This led to the constitution being settled upon that the King and Parliament should always rule together.

The Early Modern Era was also the time in which the Great Fire of London roared through the country’s capital, decimating it. This occurred in 1666 and led to the complete rebuilding of London.

At this time, there were a number of different groups. The Tories were royalists, the Whigs were liberal and the Jacobites supported King James and his sons. The Tories supported King James II (a Catholic), who the Whigs killed in the Revolution of 1688. The Whigs then invited Prince William III (from Holland) to become the king. Then, England and Scotland agreed to unite, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Some institutions remained separate, so that both countries were suitably accommodated.

For more information, please view: http://www.england.org.za/

England - MIddle Ages

King Athelstan of England he reigned
between 925 and 939. He is
regarded as the the first
king of all England and was
the grandson of
Alfred the Great.

The Middle Ages were also known as a Dark Age in England due to the distinct lack of archaeological evidence or written accounts. This means that any of the small clues that remain have had to be pieced together to form a somewhat incomplete picture.

After the Romans retreated back to Europe to defend their threatened empire there (in the year 410), England was left vulnerable to attack by pagan warriors. These ones included seafarers like the Saxons and the Jutes, who were both Germanic tribes. The kingdoms in the north of present-day England, known as Hen Ogledd, were Sub-Roman Bryothonic tribes, and experienced Anglo invasions during the 500’s too. Eventually, they were conquered by the Angles.

Because of the distinct lack of physical evidence or formal reports from this time, the theories around the Anglo-Saxon invasion and occupation of England differ somewhat. The next known piece of factual evidence (following the invasions) is that, by the seventh century, there were seven smaller Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. These were known as the Heptarchy and included Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex. One of the symptoms of the Heptarchy was the relative loss of Christianity.

Northumbria and Mercia started off as being the most influential and dominant of the sub-kingdoms. However, once the Vikings had invaded, Wessex came to be under the rulership of Alfred the Great and rose in its power and authority. Alfred the Great’s grandson was Athelstan, who was responsible for uniting the smaller kingdoms of England into one major force in 927. When Edred conquered Eric Bloodaxe (a formidable Viking), this unification was further entrenched.

King Cnut the Great was the Viking king of Denmark, Norway, England and some areas in Sweden. He reigned from 1018 to 1035 and was a major figure in Medieval Europe. For a short time, he assimilated England into the major empire that had Denmark and Norway under it. However, when Edward the Confessor ruled (between 1042 and 1066), he restored the rule of the House of Wessex.

In 1066, William the Conqueror (a fief of the Kingdom of France) conquered England. He was from the Duchy of Normandy, a nation that had introduced feudalism (a system of ruling and owning land) in England. They had castles all across the country, maintaining a relative amount of power through their barons. English was influenced significantly by the Norman French spoken at this time.

The House of Plantagenet from Anjou had inherited a number of fiefs under the throne of King Henry II. England was one of these, adding yet another element to the Angevin Empire. This reign lasted for some three hundred years and included well-known rulers and historical figures, such as Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. During this time, there were significant changes in the laws of the country and the regulations regarding trade. One of these was the Magna Carta, which was designed to protect freemen and limit the extent of the king’s power and influence. During this time, Catholicism blossomed and the Oxford and Cambridge universities were founded. The Principality of Wales was made a Plantagenet fief and the Pope gave Lordship of Ireland to the English monarchy as a gift. This occurred in the 13th century.

The 14th century proved to be fraught with conflict. Both the houses of Plantagenet and Valois claimed that they were the legitimate claimants to the House of Capet as well as France. The Hundred Years' War saw these two powers clashing in violent encounters.

In 1348, Black Death emerged. This was one of the deadliest epidemics ever to emerge, killing approximately 100 million people worldwide. It killed about half of the inhabitants of ancient England.

Then, halfway through the 15th century, the Yorkists and the Lancastrians (which formed the two parts of the royal family) began to clash in a civil war known as the War of the Roses. This lasted from 1453 to 1487. The Yorkists lost the throne to the Tudors, the Welsh nobles that were part of the Lancastrians.

For more information, please view: http://www.england.org.za/

England - Literature And Authors

This vintage engraving depicts an a political cartoon on the state
of the arts in England in the mid 1700s. It is the creation of
William Hogarth (1697 -1764), the brilliant English cartoonist.
Here an oblivious monkey makes a futile effort to water
decaying stumps, marked Obit 1502, 1600 and 1604.
A quote accompanied the piece in Latin that read
"How shall I explain this - that fame is denied to the living?"
Hogarth's point was that while the King patriotically supports
a young and vibrant art scene in 18th century England,
connoisseurs persist in the futile promotion of dead
foreign artists. Engraved by T. Cook & Son after
Hogarth's painting. It was published in an
1810 collection of Hogarth's work and
is now in the public domain. Digital
restoration by Steven Wynn Photographer

Being the origin of the English language, England has yielded many noteworthy literary works and authors. While each of these is unique, they represent England’s literature as a cohesive body. Over the ages, different styles and approaches to literature have become evident.

The oldest surviving texts are written in Old English and are from the early part of the Middle Ages. Before these, literary works were in the form of oral tales that were passed down from one generation to the next. These works were usually written in poetic prose that could be performed, instead of merely being recited. These were fluid and dynamic, changing with each performance. The Anglo-Saxons brought Germanic poetry and performances with them when they inhabited England. Thus, even the essentially English literature of the time became influenced, often adapting Germanic poems and tales. The Anglo-Saxons made extensive use of alliteration (beginning each or most words in a sentence with the same letter; e.g. fight the fine fight of the faith) as well as rhyme to assist them to remember the pieces.

The 1100’s saw the development of Middle English, which was far more influenced by French and Latin than the English of old. By this time, poems and tales were being written down, thereby allowing a greater number of people to have access to and enjoy it. Middle English was the main language of literature right up until the 1470’s, at which time it was replaced by a London-based English called Chancery Standard. Middle English can be divided into 1) religious, 2) courtly love and 3) Arthurian. Geoffrey Chaucer, dubbed the “father of English literature”, was one of the key figures of the 14th century. He used English in ways that it had never before been used and opened up endless opportunities for those that followed his lead.

The English Renaissance of the 15th Century brought about a tendency toward the use of vernacular literature, or the English of the common people. This meant that a vast number of others could now appreciate books, poems and dramas. It is important to remember that literature was not viewed merely as a form of entertainment. Rather, it was a dialogue about political and social issues, an outlet for emotions. So, when the common people were invited to share in this dialogue, it had major implications on how literature was viewed by all.

Elizabethan literature was part of the Renaissance movement (along with many others). Especially popular was drama and theatre, which was greatly influenced by Greek and Roman cultures. Comedy and tragedy were popular themes, playing a cathartic role for the spectators as they were able to vent pent-up frustrations in the name of literature.

William Shakespeare was, and still is, an acclaimed author from the Elizabethan era. Baptised in April 1564 (exact date of birth unknown), he lived to be only 52 years of age. William Shakespeare was a poet, playwright and actor, but is best known for his plays, which include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Macbeth and The Tempest.

The 18th century was dubbed the “Age of Enlightenment” as literature reflected the society’s tendency to rely on science, politics, religion and economy for guidance, rather than on gods, fate and chance. Literature attacked socially accepted norms, forcing people to question their beliefs. There was also a greater emphasis on acting upon instincts rather than always exercising self-control and restraint. With this new attitude, the literary world and its authors reflected back on the medieval productions with a renewed sympathy for the lack of emotions displayed. This led to the remaking of several ballads and folk tales.

Several styles followed over the course of the next few decades. These include Romanticism, Victorianism and Modernism. All of these played their important role in the creation of English literary history. Modernism is particularly interesting as it presented a different perspective; one that moved away from everything being certain and objective (typical of Victorian literature). Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories of the subconscious wove their academic thread through much of the authors’ productions.

Works typical of the Modernist era include Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad) and the writings of William Butler Yeats, Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence, T.S. Eliot, Ernest Hemingway and Robert Frost (although not all of these are English writers).

For more information, please view: http://www.zeroland.co.nz/english_authors.html

England

England is the most populous and significant country of the United Kingdom with over 51 million residents. It includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isle of Wight, in addition to its mainland. It is bordered by Scotland, Wales, the Celtic Sea, the North Sea and the English Channel.Although being a relatively small country, England has held sway over almost every continent of the world at some time in history. This not only led to the spread of the English people all over the world, but also to the influx of other nations to this relatively small European island. As surrounding nations, and those further afield, arrived in their droves in search of money, power and better prospects, the English nation became a varied one. Languages, cultures and religions converged. Today, the population is one of ever-increasing diversity. This continues to draw people from all over the world; both as a holiday destination and as a home. The long history of England is evident by the many castles, forts, bridges and monuments erected in memory of long-ago events and people. 

These alone give this country an aura of historical resonance.Image of Early morning lights up the top of Big Ben across the Thames River Early morning lights up the top of Big Ben across the Thames River England is fairly flat, but the expanses of lush, green vegetation, narrow roads, and stone houses certainly grant it a quaint beauty all its own. The coastal regions are well populated and promise stunning vistas.

London is the capital city of England. This city is an ever-bustling metropolis that has successfully combined modern amenities with quaint historical charm. The old buildings and awesome tourist attractions lend it an old-fashioned air, despite the thousands of locals rushing to and fro as they carry on their everyday routine.Scotland borders England to the north and Wales forms much of the western border. This makes England ideally situated to be the base from which visitors explore the remainder of the United Kingdom. There are many rivers and lakes in this fertile land. The tidal rivers (Thames, Mersey and Tyne) are the most significant in terms of their continued functionality and the ports on their banks. The Lake District is where most of the English lakes are situated.Image of typical dry stone walls and barns in Swaledale Yorkshire, England Typical dry stone walls and barns in Swaledale Yorkshire, England

England is ruled by a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who uses a parliament to manage the country. A Prime Minister is elected from the leading party and exercises his authority in cooperation with the Queen.

The English culture is somewhat different to other nations, even those closely surrounding it. The cuisine is simple, using fresh ingredients of a high standard and avoiding strong herbs and spices. Many dishes hail from a time of farming or battle, when food supplies were usually grown at home and supplies were limited. As the origin of the English language, England has presented the world with many of the best known authors, playwrights and poets of all time. Well known examples are William Shakespeare and Charles Dickens. Folklore is another popular element of the English culture. Tales of centuries ago continue to delight young and old, some even carrying their own annual festivals with them.

England is a most rewarding destination. Not only is it rich in its historical and cultural spheres, but these elements have played a major role in most other countries in the world. Therefore, travellers from around the world are able to identify with much of its heritage, recognising the influence this had on their own culture and development.

Directgov - the official UK government web site for citizens - http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/index.htm

Javanese Shadow Puppet

Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) in Central Java is probably one of the oldest continuous traditions of storytelling in the world, and certainly among the most highly developed.

Wayang is well integrated in Javanese society, and it is considered to be a highlight of Javanese culture. Wayang is a Javanese word meaning "shadow" or "ghost" and is a theatrical performance of living actors (wayang orang), three dimensional puppets (wayang golek) or shadow images projected before a backlit screen (wayang kulit).
The wayang kulit use two-dimensional puppets chiseled by hand of buffalo or goat parchment; like paper dolls, but with arms that swivel. A wayang kulit puppet is a stylized exaggeration of a human shape. Most of the stories performed in the shadow puppet shows are from Indian epics but they were transformed by generations of Javanese tellers.

The dalang (puppeteer) manipulates the puppets, sings and taps out signals to the orchestra. He also speaks the parts for all characters; he must be able to render the shy sweetness in the voice of a princess, the spiteful whine of a lackey and the righteous but controlled anger of a noble hero.