Ninja Culture

A typical ninja village would not be any different from other medieval
Japanese villages except for few very sharp-eyed adults who would
keep a careful watch on a trespasser. Many would be tending their rice
fields and harvesting vegetables and fruits. Others would be making
craftworks and few would be blacksmiths making sickles and cooking
knives. A ninja village's purpose is to support ninja and remain
unnoticed. As with another village, a ninja village would have a leader,
who often was the head of ninja group. Under him would be several
jyounin , which literally means the high ninja. Under the jyounin

would be severalch unin, which literally means the middle ninja.
Under chunin would be manygeni, which literally means the
low ninja. Upon receiving a mission from a daimyo, an osa would give
order to the jyounin to select necessary personnel. Some ninja groups would be smaller and may have been less structured. Other groups may have been structured more like an army and the leader may instead have been called ashou (general). While ninja are often depicted as male, female were often ninja as well. A female ninja may be called akun oic hi. These are actually the three strokes that make up the kanji character for female,onna . Although sometimes depicted as an experienced prostitute who gained secrets from the enemy by seduction, they rarely used that method. Most prostitutes in medieval Japan worked exclusively in brothels. Few would take their chances with a freelance prostitute, especially since in many places it was considered illegal.

Ninpo (literally 'the laws of ninja), or simply okite ( literally'rule'), are the guidelines that ninja followed. It had many stipulations, but the most important rule was of keeping the secret of being ninja to themselves and never revealing the daimyo who gave them orders. The most severe crime any ninja could commit was of betraying and killing fellow ninja. The punishment was death and, if deemed by the council of ninja, his or her family would be executed as well. Second to that was the crime of leaving the ninja village without authorization and never coming back. He or she would be callednuke nin  and his or her family member would be tasked to bring him back, dead or alive.

History of the Ninja and Ninjutsu

Ninjutsu is known by many as the art of stealth or the art of the shadow.
Much of the training in the ninjutsu school centers around close range
combat and the art of invisibility and espionage. Some of the special skills
learned by ninjutsu practitioners have historically given the ninja a
reputation of possessing magical powers. Climbing walls and swimming while
clad in armor are two skills that have earned this reputation. Other skills
taught to the ninja included map making, disguise, silent entry and escape,
leaping, high endurance, sabotage, and the use of available surroundings as
weapons.

The history of the ninja is shrouded in secrecy. Ninja often hold the
incorrect reputation of having all been assassins. This was not the case.
Though no single origin can be proven, most common beliefs surrounding the
origins of ninjutsu attribute it as a fighting method taught within mountain
families as a means for self defense during feudal Japan against territory
claimants. In order to defend themselves against powerful foes such as the
samurai class of warriors who had strength in numbers, the ninja developed
stealth capabilities and unorthodox combat techniques. The fighting tactics
employed by the ninja were often seen as cowardly by the samurai.
However, they were often very effective.


In many ways, the tactics employed by the ninja were very similar to techniques
adopted by the early American colonists during the war for independence from
England. Traditional British battle strategy was to line up in open fields and fire
weapons in a sequential pattern. After many brutal defeats, the heavily under-manned
colonists learned to compensate for numbers and power by using ambush and disguise
tactics. This strategy was considered to be cowardly by the British armies but, like
the similar strategies employed by the ninja, it also proved to be very effective.

Ninjutsu was banned in the 17th century but continued to be passed down in
underground circles. The art is still practiced today though not at widely as in the
days of feudal Japan.
Like the farmers of the past who fought to defend their lands, Ninja Billy and his
friends use their skills to protect others and stand for what is right in the world.

History of the Samurai

The samurai, a class of highly skilled warriors, gradually developed in Japan after the Taika reforms of 646 A.D. The reforms included land redistribution and heavy new taxes, meant to support an elaborate Chinese-style empire. As a result, many small farmers had to sell their land and work as tenant farmers.

Meanwhile, a few large landholders amassed power and wealth, creating a feudal system similar to medieval Europe's. This top-heavy system proved unwieldy, and crumbled within a few centuries.

As in Europe, the new feudal lords needed warriors to defend their riches. Thus, the samurai warrior (or "bushi") was born.

Early Feudal Era Samurai:

Some samurai were relatives of the landowners, while others were simply hired swords. The samurai code emphasized loyalty to one's master, even over family loyalty. History shows that the most loyal samurai were usually family members or financial dependents of their lords.

In the 900s, the weak emperors of the Heian Dynasty (794-1185) lost control of rural Japan. The country was riven by revolt; the emperor soon wielded power only within the capital. Across the country, the warrior class moved in to fill the power vacuum.

By 1100, the samurai effectively held both military and political power over much of Japan.
End of the Heian Era / Rise of Samurai Rule:

The weak imperial line received a fatal blow to its power in 1156, when Emperor Toba died without a clear successor. His sons, Sutoku and Go-Shirakawa, fought for control in a civil war called the Hogen Rebellion.

In the end, both would-be emperors lost; the imperial office lost all its remaining power.

During this civil war, the Minamoto and Taira samurai clans rose to prominence. They fought one another in the Heiji Rebellion of 1160. After their victory, the Taira established the first samurai-led government, or shogunate, with the emperor as a figurehead. The defeated Minamoto were banished from the capital at Kyoto.

Kamakura Period :

The two clans fought once more in the Genpei War (1180-1185), which ended in victory for the Minamoto.

Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate, which ruled much of Japan until 1333. While the Kamakura were powerful, they never conquered northern and western areas of the country. The shoguns also faced periodic resistance from other samurai clans.

In 1268, an external threat appeared. Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of Yuan China, demanded tribute from Japan. Kyoto refused. The Mongols invaded in 1274 with 600 ships, but a typhoon destroyed their armada. A second invasion fleet in 1281 met the same fate.
Fall of the Kamakura / Early Muromachi (Ashikaga) Period:

Despite such incredible help from nature, the Mongol attacks cost the Kamakura dearly.

Unable to offer land or riches to the samurai leaders who rallied to Japan's defense, the weakened shogun faced a challenge from Emperor Go-Daigo in 1318. The emperor was exiled in 1331, but returned and overthrew the Shogunate in 1333.

This Kemmu Restoration of imperial power lasted only three years.

In 1336, the Ashikaga Shogunate under Ashikaga Takauji reasserted samurai rule, but it was weaker than the Kamakura had been. Regional constables called "daimyo" developed considerable power, meddling in the shogunate's succession.
Later Muromachi Period:

By 1460, the daimyo were ignoring orders from the shogun, and backing different successors to the imperial throne. When the shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, resigned in 1464, a dispute between backers of his younger brother and his son ignited even more intense bickering among the daimyo.

In 1467, this squabbling erupted into the decade-long Onin War. Thousands died, and Kyoto was burned to the ground.

The Onin War led directly to Japan's "Warring States Period," or Sengoku. Between 1467 and 1573, various daimyo led their clans in a fight for national dominance. Nearly all of the provinces were engulfed in the fighting.
Azuchi-Momoyama Period / Restoration of Order:

The Warring States Period began to draw to a close in 1568, when the warlord Oda Nobunaga defeated three other powerful daimyo, marched into Kyoto, and had his favorite, Yoshiaki, installed as shogun.

Nobunaga spent the next 14 years subduing other rival daimyo, and quelling rebellions by fractious Buddhist monks.

His grand Azuchi Castle, constructed between 1576 and 1579, became of symbol of Japanese reunification.

In 1582, Nobunaga was assassinated by one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide. Hideyoshi, another general, finished the unification and ruled as kampaku (regent).

Hideyoshi invaded Korea in 1592 and 1597.
Tokugawa Shogunate (Edo Period):

Hideyoshi had exiled the large Tokugawa clan from the area around Kyoto to the Kanto region in western Japan. The Taiko died in 1598, and by 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu had conquered the other western daimyo from his castle stronghold at Edo (the future Tokyo).

Ieyasu's son, Hidetada, became shogun of the unified country in 1605, ushering in about 250 years of relative peace and stability for Japan.

The strong Tokugawa shoguns domesticated the samurai, forcing them to either serve their lords in the cities, or give up their swords and farm. This transformed the warriors into a hereditary class of cultured bureaucrats.
Meiji Restoration and the Decline of the Samurai:

In 1868, the Meiji Restoration signaled the beginning of the end for the samurai.

The Meiji system of constitutional monarchy included such democratic reforms as term limits for public office and popular balloting. With public support, the Meiji Emperor did away with the samurai, reduced the power of the daimyo, and moved the capital from Kyoto to Tokyo.

The new government created a conscripted army in 1873; many of the officers were drawn from the ranks of former samurai.

In 1877, angry ex-samurai revolted against the Meiji in the Satsuma Rebellion; they lost the Battle of Shiroyama, and the era of the samurai was over.
The Culture and Myth of the Samurai:

Samurai Culture

The culture of the samurai was grounded in the concept of bushido - "the way of the warrior." The central tenets of bushido are honor and freedom from the fear of death. A samurai was legally entitled to cut down any commoner who failed to honor him (or her) properly. A warrior imbued with bushido spirit would fight fearlessly for his master, and die honorably rather than surrender in defeat.

Out of this disregard for death, the Japanese tradition of seppuku evolved: defeated warriors (and disgraced government officials) would commit suicide with honor by ritually disemboweling themselves with a short sword.

Samurai Weapons

Early samurai were archers, fighting on foot or horseback with extremely long bows (yumi). They used swords mainly for finishing off wounded enemies.

After the Mongol invasions of 1272 and 1281, the samurai began to make more use of swords, as well as poles topped by curved blades called naginata, and spears.

Samurai warriors wore two swords, together called daisho - "long and short." The katana, a curved blade over 24 inches long, was suitable for slashing, while the wakizashi, at 12-24 inches, was used for stabbing. In the late 16th century, non-samurai were forbidden to wear the daisho.

Samurai wore full body-armor in battle, often including a horned helmet.

The Samurai Myth
Modern Japanese honor the memory of the samurai, and bushido still infuses the culture. Today, however, the samurai code is invoked in corporate boardrooms rather than on the battlefield.

Even now, everyone knows the story of the 47 Ronin, Japan's "national legend."

In 1701, the daimyo Asano Naganori drew a dagger in the shogun's palace and tried to kill Kira, a government official. Asano was arrested, and forced to commit seppuku. Two years later, forty-seven of his samurai hunted down Kira and killed him, without knowing Asano's reasons for attacking the official. It was enough that he wanted Kira dead.

Since the ronin had followed bushido, the shogun allowed them to commit seppuku instead of being executed.
People still offer incense at the graves of the ronin, and the story has been made into a number of plays and films.

Akashi Castle

Ogasawara Tadazane (former lord of Matsumoto), moved into the area in 1617. In 1619, under the orders of Tokugawa Hidetada he built Akashi Castle in just one year for the purposes of watching over the Western lords and building up the Tokugawa defenses in the region. He accomplished building this castle in so little time mainly because he used materials from castles in the area that were decomissioned under the one castle per country law of 1615.

The castle deftly makes use of the natural terrain in a 3 tiered castle compound. Ogasawara's father-in-law Honda Tadamasa, who also directed the construction of Himeji Castle, assisted with the construction of Akashi castle. Even though they build a large foundation for a large donjon, no donjon was ever built. In it's place the honmaru had 4 large 3 story yagura, two of which are still standing today.
Eventually, Ogasawara Tadazane was moved to Kokura Castle and the lordship of Akashi Castle changed hands several times until it was taken over by Matsudaira Naoakira in 1682. The Matsudaira continued to ruled until the coming of the Meiji Restoration.

For more information, visit the official Web site at www.yayoi-yumeji-museum.jp.

Edo Castle stones

The history of Edo-jo dates back to the Heian Period when a fortified palace was built by the Edo clan on this site. In 1457 the Uesugi clan had a vassal construct Edo-jo. The castle remained under the control of the Uesugi family until the coming of the Tokugawa.

Before Tokugawa Ieyasu, Edo (Tokyo) was just another town in the Kanto area. Partly due to Ieyasu's revolutionary city planning, the town of Edo developed at lightning speed and quickly became the social and political center of Japan. The castle, Edo-jo, which was the center of Tokugawa's city, was the largest castle in the world at that time.

In 1657 a great fire swept through Tokyo and destroyed many parts of the castle including the donjon. To this day, the donjon has never been rebuilt. For 264 years, 15 generations of Tokugawa ruled Japan from Edo-jo. The Tokugawa gave up control of the castle when they lost the Boshin war in 1868. The majority of Edo-jo was destroyed by the U.S. bombings of Tokyo during WWII.

Today, a large section of Edo-jo is occupied by the Imperial palace where the emperor and his family reside. The public cannot enter this area but they can enter the Higashi-gyoen (east gardens) and the Honmaru where the donjon once stood. A reconstructed palisade marks the location of the former donjon. It is worth a trip to Edo-jo just to see the immense stone walled moats that remain from the original castle. The stones were simply fitted together and not cemented which is why they were able to withstand the Great Kanto Earthquake without crumbling.

For more information, visit the official Web site at www.yayoi-yumeji-museum.jp.

The graphic art of Yumeji

Yumeji Takehisa personifies the Taisho romantic style--a cultural phenomenon and its products, which conveyed life in the Taisho era (1912-1926). His bijin-ga--paintings of women, sometimes elegant, sometimes melancholic--have found a new following, as has the artist himself. An ongoing exhibition at a Tokyo museum, however, focuses on another side of the artist: his successful career as an art director.

"Yumeji is generally known for his depictions of languid beautiful women, but he also was a graphic artist and proved himself in a variety of fields," said Keiko Ishikawa, a curator at Takehisa Yumeji Museum, where 420 of the artist's works are being shown under the title Takehisa Yumeji: Zuan to Soshoku-ten.

"In addition to his fragile, feminine bijin-ga paintings, he was active in commercial publishing and marketing, cleverly employing the fashion and atmosphere of the times. He added to his Japanese-influenced style elements from art nouveau and art deco, which attracted women looking for something new."

The exhibition is divided into five sections. The first provides an overview of the designs and patterns Yumeji used. The remaining sections delve into far more detail.
The 420 items, chosen from among the 3,300 works in the collection at the 20-year-old museum, are all related to printed matter, including magazines, books and posters. Visitors can find Yumeji's chiyogami-patterned washi paper, magazine covers featuring a woman he drew in the Taisho romantic fashion and department store advertisements with Yumeji's interpretation of geometrical patterns.

In a 1931 Mitsukoshi department store poster, for example, Yumeji employs more geometrical, simplified lines to portray a woman, a radical change to his more orthodox bijin-ga.
A number of magazines aimed at female readers of the time--publishers had just begun targeting education and entertainment publications at girls and women--show that Yumeji did not only create cover images, but also a number of interior editorial illustrations. He was even responsible for the overall art direction of the publications.

Ishikawa includes in the exhibit a number of Yumeji's ebuto--designed envelopes--illustrating the trend among women of the time to exchange letters. The ebuto were among the original items Yumeji sold at his own store, Minatoya Ezoshiten, which he opened in 1914 in Nihonbashi, Tokyo. (The store was shut down two years later due in part to his personal problems with women).

"Yumeji's wide range of works tells us he was more than the laid-back, romantic artist who was busy painting and loving women," Ishikawa said. "He also was what we would now refer to as an art director." Yumeji also is known for his tumultuous relationship with his wife, Tamaki, and mistresses.
"The products also show that Yumeji was a man of ideas. In one women's magazine, for example, Yumeji introduced yukata designs and used as models an actress and a woman from a well-off family. He then sold the yukata fabric as merchandise," she said. His sophisticated commercial artistry can be found in a number of paintings that he made for the covers of a series of musical scores published by Senoo Gakufu. Between 1916 and 1929, Yumeji's paintings were featured on about 270 books of musical scores.

According to Ishikawa, there were few people at the time who were able to read or play to the score. "But people bought scores just for their covers, and those by Yumeji were the most popular."
It was around 1925 when radio started becoming popular in Japan. It's easy to imagine how difficult it must have been for Yumeji to express the charm of opera and Western music on these covers with so little access to information. Still, his illustrations for Peer Gynt or Nina, for example, show his excellent artistic skills.
Yumeji fell ill and died in 1934 at the age of 49.

"Shojo-ga [illustrations of girls] artists such as Junichi Nakahara [1913-1983] and illustrator Ado Mizumori are among artists who say they were influenced by Yumeji. Mangaka Moyoko Anno also evaluates him highly," Ishikawa said. "I'm sure his influence would only have been greater had he not died so young."
"Takehisa Yumeji: Zuan to Soshoku-ten" until March 27, 10 a.m.-5 p.m. at Takehisa Yumeji Museum in Bunkyo Ward, Tokyo. Closed March 22 and Mondays, except March 21. Admission is 900 yen for adults, 800 yen for college and high school students and 400 yen for middle and primary school students. The price of admission also includes entrance at the neighboring Yayoi Museum.


For more information, visit the official Web site at www.yayoi-yumeji-museum.jp.

Modern literature (1868–1945)

Modern Asian literature has not encapsulated western society, its illuminating origins seemingly foreign to nations such as England, American and Australia. Many of Asia's finest works remain buried under contemporary, generic arts. However, a magnitude of secrets contained within this eloquent Asian literature, are not portrayed through orthodox, western styles. But through more traditional mediums such as on stage and through culturally rich artworks.

The Meiji period marks the re-opening of Japan to the West, and a period of rapid industrialization. The introduction of European literature brought free verse into the poetic repertoire; it became widely used for longer works embodying new intellectual themes. Young Japanese prose writers and dramatists struggled with a whole galaxy of new ideas and artistic schools, but novelists were the first to successfully assimilate some of these concepts.

A new colloquial literature developed centering on the "I novel", with some unusual protagonists such as the cat narrator of Natsume Sōseki's Wagahai wa neko de aru (I Am a Cat).[dubious – discuss] Natsume Sōseki also wrote the famous novels Botchan and Kokoro (1914). Shiga Naoya, the so called "god of the novel," and Mori Ōgai were instrumental in adopting and adapting Western literary conventions and techniques. Ryūnosuke Akutagawa is known especially for his historical short stories. Ozaki Kōyō, Kyōka Izumi, and Ichiyo Higuchi represent a strain of writers whose style hearkens back to early-Modern Japanese literature.

In the early Meiji period (1868–1880s), Fukuzawa Yukichi authored Enlightenment literature, while pre-modern popular books depicted the quickly changing country. Then Realism was brought in by Tsubouchi Shōyō and Futabatei Shimei in the mid-Meiji (late 1880s–early 1890s) while the Classicism of Ozaki Kōyō, Yamada Bimyo and Kōda Rohan gained popularity. Ichiyō Higuchi, a rare woman writer in this era, wrote short stories on powerless women of this age in a simple style in between literary and colloquial. Kyōka Izumi, a favored disciple of Ozaki, pursued a flowing and elegant style and wrote early novels such as The Operating Room (1895) in literary style and later ones including The Holy Man of Mount Koya (1900) in colloquial.

Romanticism was brought in by Mori Ōgai with his anthology of translated poems (1889) and carried to its height by Tōson Shimazaki etc. and magazines Myōjō and Bungaku-kai in early 1900s. Mori also wrote some modern novels including The Dancing Girl (1890), Wild Geese (1911), then later wrote historical novels. Natsume Sōseki, who is often compared with Mori Ōgai, wrote I Am a Cat (1905) with humor and satire, then depicted fresh and pure youth in Botchan (1906) and Sanshirô (1908). He eventually pursued transcendence of human emotions and egoism in his later works including Kokoro (1914) his last and unfinished novel Light and darkness (1916).

Shimazaki shifted from Romanticism to Naturalism which was established with his The Broken Commandment (1906) and Katai Tayama's Futon (1907). Naturalism hatched "I Novel" (Watakushi-shôsetu) that describes about the authors themselves and depicts their own mental states. Neo-romanticism came out of anti-naturalism and was led by Kafū Nagai, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Kōtarō Takamura, Hakushū Kitahara and so on in the early 1910s. Saneatsu Mushanokōji, Naoya Shiga and others founded a magazine Shirakaba in 1910. They shared a common characteristic, Humanism. Shiga's style was autobiographical and depicted states of his mind and sometimes classified as "I Novel" in this sense. Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, who was highly praised by Soseki, wrote short stories including Rashōmon (1915) with an intellectual and analytic attitude, and represented Neo-realism in the mid 1910s.

During the 1920s and early 1930s the proletarian literary movement, comprising such writers as Takiji Kobayashi, Denji Kuroshima, Yuriko Miyamoto, and Ineko Sata produced a politically radical literature depicting the harsh lives of workers, peasants, women, and other downtrodden members of society, and their struggles for change.

War-time Japan saw the début of several authors best known for the beauty of their language and their tales of love and sensuality, notably Jun'ichirō Tanizaki and Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, Yasunari Kawabata, a master of psychological fiction. Ashihei Hino wrote lyrical bestsellers glorifying the war, while Tatsuzō Ishikawa attempted to publish a disturbingly realistic account of the advance on Nanjing. Writers who opposed the war include Denji Kuroshima, Mitsuharu Kaneko, Hideo Oguma, and Jun Ishikawa.

Early-modern literature (1603–1868)

Literature during this time was written during the largely peaceful Tokugawa Period (commonly referred to as the Edo Period). Due in large part to the rise of the working and middle classes in the new capital of Edo (modern Tokyo), forms of popular drama developed which would later evolve into kabuki. The jōruri and kabuki dramatist Chikamatsu Monzaemon became popular at the end of the 17th century. Matsuo Bashō wrote Oku no Hosomichi (1702), a travel diary. Hokusai, perhaps Japan's most famous woodblock print artist, also illustrated fiction as well as his famous 36 Views of Mount Fuji.

Many genres of literature made their début during the Edo Period, helped by a rising literacy rate among the growing population of townspeople, as well as the development of lending libraries. Although there was a minor Western influence trickling into the country from the Dutch settlement at Nagasaki, it was the importation of Chinese vernacular fiction that proved the greatest outside influence on the development of Early Modern Japanese fiction. Ihara Saikaku might be said to have given birth to the modern consciousness of the novel in Japan, mixing vernacular dialogue into his humorous and cautionary tales of the pleasure quarters. Jippensha Ikku wrote Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige, which is a mix of travelogue and comedy. Tsuga Teisho, Takebe Ayatari, and Okajima Kanzan were instrumental in developing the yomihon, which were historical romances almost entirely in prose, influenced by Chinese vernacular novels such as Three Kingdoms and Shui hu zhuan. Two yomihon masterpieces were written by Ueda Akinari: Ugetsu monogatari and Harusame monogatari. Kyokutei Bakin wrote the extremely popular fantasy/historical romance Nansō Satomi Hakkenden in addition to other yomihon. Santō Kyōden wrote yomihon mostly set in the gay quarters until the Kansei edicts banned such works, and he turned to comedic kibyōshi. Genres included horror, crime stories, morality stories, comedy, and pornography—often accompanied by colorful woodcut prints.

Nevertheless, in the Tokugawa, as in earlier periods, scholarly work continued to be published in Chinese, which was the language of the learned much as Latin was in Europe

Medieval literature (1185–1603)

During this period, Japan experienced many civil wars which led to the development of a warrior class, and subsequent war tales, histories, and related stories. Work from this period is notable for its insights into life and death, simple lifestyles, and redemption through killing. A representative work is The Tale of the Heike (1371), an epic account of the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the twelfth century. Other important tales of the period include Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki (1212) and Yoshida Kenkō's Tsurezuregusa (1331).

Other notable genres in this period were renga, or linked verse, and Noh theater. Both were rapidly developed in the middle of the 14th century, the early Muromachi period.

Japan's-Shodo (Calligraphy)

Japanese calligraphy or shodo is an artistic way of writing the Japanese language using brush (fude) and ink (sumi).  This form of writing with a set brush stroke order allows for a creative way to produce works of art.  Often tied with meditation, the mind is cleared to let the letters flow out with little effort.  This state of mind is called mu shin or “no mind state.”

Continue practicing and expand your calligraphy with these monthly classes.  There are different calligraphy styles such as: kaisho “correct writing” described as deliberate and clear strokes similar to newspaper print, gyousho “traveling writing” seen as a semi cursive style, and sousho “grass writing” the flowing cursive style.  You can also use your calligraphy to decorate objects such as fans or lamps.  Whether you practice “mu shin” or simply enjoy exploring your creativity, you can learn about yourself as you allow the worries of the week to flow out like the ink off the brush while economically beautifying your living area.

Advance at your own pace and, with 48,000 characters to practice, there is plenty to try.  You do not need to know how to write in Japanese.   All levels are welcome. The materials for decorative calligraphy can differ each month and can be discussed in the first class if you would like to try.  The projects are ideal for gifts as well.

Brushes can be purchased for an additional fee and a list of supplies can be provided.  Brushes can be rented as well.  Materials for decorative calligraphy are separate and can be purchased from teacher.

Japan-Classical Japanese

Classical Japanese(794–1185) literature generally refers to literature produced during the Heian period, referred to as the golden era of art and literature. Genji Monogatari (early 11th century) by a woman named Murasaki Shikibu is considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of Heian fiction and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel. Other important writings of this period include the Kokin Wakashū (905), a waka-poetry anthology, and Makura no Sōshi (990s), the latter written by Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival, Sei Shōnagon, as an essay about the life, loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court. The iroha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary, was also developed during the early part of this period.

The 10th century Japanese narrative, Taketori Monogatari, can be considered an early example of proto-science fiction. The protagonist of the story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter. She is later taken back to her extraterrestrial family in an illustrated depiction of a disc-shaped flying object similar to a flying saucer. Another notable piece of fictional Japanese literature was Konjaku Monogatarishū, a collection of over a thousand stories in 31 volumes. The volumes cover various tales from India, China and Japan. In this time, the imperial court particularly patronized the poets, most of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-waiting. Reflecting the aristocratic atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and sophisticated and expressed emotions in a rhetorical style. Editing the resulting anthologies of poetry soon became a national pastime.

Japan-Ancient literature

Ancient literature (Until 794)

Before the introduction of kanji from China,there was no Japanese writing system. At first, Chinese characters were used in Japanese syntactical formats, and the result was sentences that look like Chinese but are phonetically read as Japanese. Chinese characters were further adapted, creating what is known as man'yōgana, the earliest form of kana, or syllabic writing. The earliest works were created in the Nara period. These include Kojiki (712), a work recording Japanese mythology and legendary history; Nihon Shoki (720), a chronicle with a slightly more solid foundation in historical records than Kojiki and Man'yōshū (759), a poetry anthology. One of the stories they describe is the tale of Urashima Tarō, which has been identified as the earliest example of a story involving time travel.

Kanji

Kanji (literally "characters from Han China") are Chinese characters used in Japanese. Kanji are one of the four character sets used in the modern Japanese writing system (the other three being hiragana, katakana and romaji).

This article focuses on the features that are unique to kanji. See Chinese character for the common features with Chinese characters used in the Korean and Chinese languages.

History of  kanji

There is some disagreement about the beginning of Chinese characters use in Japan, but it is generally accepted that Buddhist monks brought Chinese texts back to Japan in about the 5th century, and these were read in the Chinese language. Over time, a system known as kanbun emerged: this was essentially Chinese text with diacritical marks to allow Japanese speakers to read it in accordance with the rules of Japanese grammar.

Japanese it self had no written form. Eventually a writing system called manyogana (used in the ancient poetry anthology Manyoshu) evolved that used a limited set of kanji for their phonetic value alone, not for their semantic value, which was necessary for writing Japanese poetry. Manyogana written in highly cursive style became hiragana, a writing system that was accessible to women (who were denied higher education). Major works of Heian-era literature by women were written in hiragana. Katakana emerged via a parallel path: monastery students simplified manyogana to a single constituent element. Hiragana and katakana are referred to collectively as kana.

As the Japanese system of writing matured and expanded, kanji began to be used to write certain parts of speech, such as nouns, adjectives and verbs, while kana were used to write verb endings, uniquely Japanese words, and foreign words (but note that this usage developed much later originally foreign words were written using kanji, chosen either for their meaning or to spell the word phonetically.).

Katakana

Katakana is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana,kanji, and in some cases the Latin alphabet . The word katakana means "fragmentary kana", as the katakana scripts are derived from components of more complex kanji.

Katakana are characterized by short, straight strokes and angular corners, and are the simplest of the Japanese scripts.There are two main systems of ordering katakana: the old-fashioned iroha ordering, and the more prevalent gojūon ordering.

Hiragana

Hiragana is a Japanese syllabary, one basic component of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana, kanji, and the Latin alphabet (rōmaji). Hiragana and katakana are both kana systems, in which each character represents one mora. Each kana is either a vowel such as "a"; a consonant followed by a vowel such as "ka" or "n" , a nasal sonorant which, depending on the context, sounds either like English m, n, or ng ([ŋ]), or like the nasal vowels of French.

Hiragana is used to write native words for which there are no kanji, including particles such as  kara "from", and suffixes such as  ~san "Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms." Likewise, hiragana is used in words for which the kanji form is obscure, not known to the writer or readers, or too formal for the writing purpose. Verb and adjective inflections, as, for example, be-ma-shi-ta  in tabemashita ( "ate"), are written in hiragana, often following a verb or adjective root (here) that is written in kanji. Hiragana is also used to give the pronunciation of kanji in a reading aid called furigana. The article Japanese writing system discusses in detail how the various systems of writing are used.

There are two main systems of ordering hiragana, the old-fashioned iroha ordering, and the more prevalent gojūon ordering.

Old Japanese

Old Japanese ( jōko nihongo) is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language.
This stage in the development of Japanese is still actively studied and debated, and key OJ texts, such as the Man'yōshū, remain obscure in places.

Dating

Linguistic changes are gradual, and the periodization of Japanese is "both delicate and controversial", with multiple competing methods and criteria for division. For both practical and conventional reasons, these divisions often correlate to political events. As such, the accepted upper bound (end date) for Old Japanese is 794 A.D, when the capital Heijōkyō moved to Heiankyō. However, it is difficult to fix a lower bound. A limited number of Japanese words, mostly personal names and place names, are recorded phonetically in ancient Chinese texts such as the "Wei Zhi" portion of the Sanguo Zhi (3rd century CE). Wooden tablets and relics with fragments of text written on them have also been excavated. However, without discounting this fragmentary early evidence, the lower bound is generally placed circa 712 for practical reasons: 712 is the traditional date of composition of the Kojiki, the oldest extant written OJ text of substantial length. A lower bound circa 712 also coincides well with the Nara period (710-794). (A more formal dating methodology might simply date OJ as "through 794", without recognizing a lower bound at all.) Besides Kojiki, the other oldest literary sources include Fudoki (720), Nihon Shoki (720), and Man'yōshū (c. 759).


Limitations of Writing system

Using Chinese characters to write other languages created the following limitations.

• Only one liquid consonant: /l/
• Limited ability to represent close syllables

Middle Chinese allowed open syllables and the codas p,t,k,m,n and ng(ŋ). Old Chinese had more closed syllables (some reconstructions, such as Li Fang-Kuei's and Akiyasu Tōdō's, eliminate open syllables entirely).
However, some written Old Japanese seems to include attempts to represent closed syllables. For example, sö (so₂) and its vowel alternation sa, originally a binding particle, are often written as  (tsǝŋ) and (tsar), suggesting a final consonant sound at the end of the syllable. (Etymologically those are thought as same as demonstrative söre (so₂re) and saru.)
Another example of evidence for closed syllables (although not necessarily in Old Japanese) is the fact that ("plain, field") is read hara (or bara) in standard Japanese, but paru/baru in southwestern and far western Japan. Combined with words like harappa, which has been analyzed as a reduplication: par(ar)par, this suggests that there may have been a proto-Japanese /par/ or /pal/.
In the opposite case, Old Classic Chenese people heard and wrote proto-Japanese. For example, in 3rd century, there was a queen named  /pieg miěr hag/.
the word kana(-gana) it self came from kari-na(loan-name/character) > karna > kanna > kana.
Kojiki distinguished shàngshēng (jōshō, jōsei ) and qùshēng (kyoshō, kyosei ). Those are thought as which

• vowel length: long or short
• pitch accent: high or low

Japanese pitch accent

Japanese pitch accent ( kōtei akusento) is a feature of the Japanese language. It distinguishes words in most Japanese dialects, though the nature and location of the accent for a given word may vary between dialects. For instance, in standard Tokyo Japanese the word for "now" is [i ma], with the accent on the first syllable (or equivalently, with a downstep in pitch between the first and second syllables), but in the Kansai dialect it is [i.ma]. A final [i] or [u] is often devoiced to [i̥] or [u̥] after a downstep and an unvoiced consonant.

Agglutinative language

An agglutinative language is a language that uses agglutination extensively: most words are formed by joining morphemes together. This term was introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in 1836 to classify languages from a morphological point of view. It was derived from the Latin verb agglutinare, which means "to glue together."

An agglutinative language is a form of synthetic language where each affix typically represents one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive," "past tense," "plural," etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). Additionally, and most importantly, in an agglutinative language affixes do not become fused with others, and do not change form conditioned by others.

Synthetic languages that are not agglutinative are called fusional languages they sometimes combine affixes by "squeezing" them together, often changing them drastically in the process, and joining several meanings in one affix (for example, in the Spanish word comí [I ate], the suffix -í carries the meanings of indicative mood, active voice, past tense, first person singular subject and perfective aspect).

Agglutinative is sometimes used as a synonym for synthetic, although it technically is not. When used in this way, the word embraces fusional languages and inflected languages in general.

The distinction between an agglutinative and a fusional language is often not sharp. Rather, one should think of these as two ends of a continuum, with various languages falling more toward one end or the other. For example, Japanese is generally agglutinative, but expresses fusion in otōto (younger brother?), from oto+hito (originally oto+pito). In fact, a synthetic language may present agglutinative features in its open lexicon but not in its case system (e.g. German and Dutch).

Agglutinative languages tend to have a high rate of affixes/morphemes per word, and to be very regular[citation needed]. For example, Japanese has only two irregular verbs (and not very irregular), Luganda has only one (or two, depending on how 'irregular' is defined), Turkish has only one and in the Quechua languages all the verbs are regular. Georgian is an exception; not only is it highly agglutinative (there can be simultaneously up to 8 morphemes per word), but there is also a significant number of irregular verbs, varying in degrees of irregularity.

For more information please visit : http://en.wikipedia.org/

Japanese language

Japanese language

The Japanese language has always played a significant role in Japanese culture. The language is spoken mainly in Japan but also in some Japanese emigrant communities around the world. It is an agglutinative language and the sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small but has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early Japanese is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of  
Old Japanese were compiled. The earliest attestation of the Japanese language is in a Chinese document from 252 A.D.

Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts: hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also common.


For more information plesae visit : http://en.wikipedia.org/

French cuisine

French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world. French cuisine is extremely diverse and has exerted a major influence on other western cuisines.According to the regions, traditional recipes are differents, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the preferred fat for cooking, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the South.

Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialities : Cassoulet in the Southwest, Choucroute in Alsace, Quiche in the Lorraine region, Beef bourguignon in the Bourgogne, provençal Tapenade, etc. France's most renowned products are wines,including Champagne, Bordeaux, Bourgogne, and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort and Brie. There are more than 400 different varieties.

French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.Michelin guide(a French publication) awarned 620 stars to French restaurants, more than any other country in the world (Italy came second with 255 stars).

French literature

The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects and each writer used his own spelling and grammar.[citation needed] The authors of French mediaeval texts are unknown, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot and the Holy Grail. Much mediaeval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the various Chansons de geste. The “Roman de Renart”, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude tells the story of the mediaeval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing. The names of some authors from this period are known, for exampleChrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan.

An important 16th century writer was François Rabelais who influenced modern French vocabulary and metaphor.[citation needed] During the 17th century, plays by Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Molière, as well as the moral and philosophical books by Blaise Pascal and René Descartes, deeply influenced the French aristocracy leaving an important new niche for authors of the following decades, such as Jean de La Fontaine, who was an important poet from this century.

French literature and poetry flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th century saw the works of writers, essayists and moralists such as Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including “Puss in Boots”, “Cinderella”, “Sleeping Beauty” and “Bluebeard”.
19th century poet, writer, and translator Charles Baudelaire.

At the turn of the 19th century symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé. The 19th century saw the writings of French authors: Victor Hugo (Les Misérables), Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), and Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), which are amongst the most well-known in France and the world. Other 19th century fiction writers include Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal.

The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903. Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote Little Prince which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world. For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. Compare the Evolution of Nobel Prizes by country.

French architecture

Technically speaking, there is no standard type of "French" architecture, although that has not always been true. Gothic Architecture's old name was French Architecture (or Opus Francigenum). The term “Gothic” appeared later as a stylistic insult and was widely adopted. The Gothic Architecture was the first French style of Architecture to be copied in all Europe. Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims. Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon.

During the Middle Ages, fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers against their rivals. When King Philip II took Rouen from King John, for example, he demolished the ducal castle to build a bigger one. Fortified cities were also common, unfortunately most French castles did not survive the passage of time. This is why Richard the Lionheart's Château Gaillard was demolished, as well as the Château de Lusignan. Some important French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so called Cathar castles.

Before the appearance of this architecture France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula, which used Mooresque architecture, which now consists of Spain and Portugal). Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse (largest romanesque church in Europe) and the remains of the Cluniac Abbey (largely destroyed during the Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars).

The end of the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy and Spain were invited to the French court; many residential palaces, inspired by the Italians, were built, but mainly in the Loire Valley. Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque Architecture replaced the traditional gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one. In the secular domain the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart was said to be the most influential French architect of the baroque era, with his famous dome, Les Invalides. Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can been found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.
After the Revolution the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although neoclassicism was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such building as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the French Empire the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent this trend the best.

Under Napoleon III a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth. If extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built, the urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous.[citation needed] For example, Baron Haussmann rebuilt Paris. The architecture associated to this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designer of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower.

In the 20th century, Swiss Architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. Certainly the most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings must have been under 37 meters, or 121 feet. France's largest financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; a good example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel or Paul Andreu.


For more information please view :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France

Middle Age to Revolution

The pagan Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived, originally settled the North-East of Gaul, but conquered most of northern and central Gaul, under Clovis I. The Frankish King Clovis I was the first Germanic conquerors after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert, in 498, to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille aînée de l’Église) from the papacy, and the French kings would adopt this as justification for calling their country “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”, until the French Revolution. The Franks adopted the Christian Gallo-Roman heritage, and ancient Gaul was progressively renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks"). Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian Dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims. The last Merovingian kings, sometimes referred as Rois fainéants ("lazy kings"), lost effective power to their mayors of the palace.
French territorial gains (green) and losses (red) from 985 to present-day (Colonial Empire not shown, see below)

The mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated a Muslim invasion from Hispania at the Battle of Tours (732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdoms. His son Pippin the Short eventually seized the crown of Francia from the discredited Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty. Pippin's son Charlemagne reunited the Frankish Kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe.

Proclaimed "Roman Emperor" by the Pope, Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur, from its Palace of Aachen. The efficient administration of this immense empire was ensured by high civil servants, carrying the, still non-hereditary, titles of counts, dukes, marquis, etc. Charlemagne's son Louis I (emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. The Empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with the Treaty of Verdun (843), into East Francia to Louis the German, Middle Francia to Lothair I and West Francia to Charles the Bald. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.[32] Constantly threatened by Viking invasions, France became a very decentralised state : the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, the authority of the king became more religious than effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was established the feudal system in France. Some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they would become a threat to the king. By example, after the Battle of Hastings, in 1066, the Duke of Normandy added "King of England" to his titles, becoming vassal (as Duke of Normandy) and equal (as king of England) to the king of France.

The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France.His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars, such as the Saintonge War, and dynastic inheritance into a Kingdom of France. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the south-western area of modern-day France. In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed. Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. French knights took also an active part in the various Crusades that were fought, between 1095 and 1291, to restore Christian control over the Holy Land. Meanwhile, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centred around a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners.

Charles IV (The Fair) died without an heir in 1328.Under the rules of the Salic Law adopted in 1316, the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female line.Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than through the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power. However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War.The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for centuries. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire, strong French counterattacks won back all English continental territories, except Calais which was captured in 1558 by the French.

The French Renaissance saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars, between the Kingdom of France and the powerful Holy Roman Empire It saw also the first standardization of the French language, which will become the official language of France and the language of Europe's aristocracy. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire. The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war know as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.[38] The wars of Religion were ended in France by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. Henry IV was eventually murdered by a Catholic fanatic.

The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers in Versailles, Louis XIV's personnal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. At this time, France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. Since the 18th century, French was the most used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, before English took the lead in the 20th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia.

Under Louis XV, while the continental territory of France kept growing, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770), most of its overseas possessions were lost after the French defeat during the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763.

Louis XVI actively supported the Americans seeking independence from Great Britain (realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris). The example of the American Revolution was one of the many contributing factors to the French Revolution.

Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the automobile (1771) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers (1783), were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority, undermined the Absolute monarchy and prepared the French Revolution

England - Traditional Holidays

England has various bank holidays, public holidays, traditional holidays and national events scattered across its calendar. Some date back hundreds of years, while others are more recent. Some are fun and festive, encouraging the locals to dress up and join in the festivities, while yet others are more sombre. These include (where the following dates are mentioned, they apply to 2011):

JANUARY
1 January - New Year’s Day
1 January - The New Year's Day Parade London (over 10 000 performers travel around London offering impressive dancing, acrobatics, cheerleading and musical acts)
5 January - Twelfth Night (Christian)
6 January - Epiphany (Christian)
12 January - Plough Monday (the start of the new farming year)
15 – 17 January - Straw Bear Festival at Whittlesey

FEBRUARY
2 February - Candlemas Day (Christian)
3 February - Chinese New Year
14 February - St Valentine's Day (a Christian festival associated with love and romance)

MARCH
Pancake Day (a Christian carnival on the eve of Ash Wednesday to start Lent, which is a time of fasting and devotions)
5 March – St Piran’s Day Cornwall
8 March - The Great Spitalfields Pancake Race
9 March - Ash Wednesday (the start of lent)
14 March - Commonwealth Day

APRIL
1 April – April Fool’s Day (traditionally the day of practical jokes and trickery)
3 April – Mothers’ Day
3 April - Simnel Sunday
17 April - Palm Sunday (Christian)
21 April - Maundy Thursday (Christian)
21 April – The Queen’s birthday
22 April - Good Friday (Christian)
23 April – St George’s Day (a church festival)
24 April - Easter Sunday (Christian)
25 April - Easter Monday (Christian)
25 April - Hop Monday
30 April – 2 May – Rochester Sweeps Festival

MAY
1 May - May Day
2 May - Early May Bank Holiday
30 April - 2 May - Rochester Sweeps Festival
24 May – Empire Day
29 May – Oak Apple Day (the birthday of Charles II)
30 May – Spring Bank Holiday
30 May – Cheese Rolling (in Gloucestershire)

JUNE
2 June - Ascension Day (Christian)
2 June – Coronation Day: Gun Salute
12 June – Pentecost / Whitsuntide (Christian)
19 June – Fathers’ Day

JULY
5 July - Tynwald Day (the national holiday of the Isle of Man)
15 July - St. Swithun's Day
TBC - Swan Upping (a census of swans on the River Thames)

AUGUST
1 August - Lammas Day
1 August - Yorkshire Day
26 – 28 August - Reading Festival
27 – 29 August - The Glenn Miller Festival (the largest jazz, swing and Jive festival in the United Kingdom)
28 – 29 August - Notting Hill Carnival
29 August - Late Summer Bank Holiday

SEPTEMBER
4 September – 8 November - Blackpool Illuminations
5 September - The Great River Race, London
TBC - Heritage Open Days (free entry to several National Trust properties)

OCTOBER
11 October - Apple Day
11 October - Trafalgar Day
17 October - Punky Night (children sing through the streets and at residential doors)
31 October - Halloween

NOVEMBER
1 November - All Saints Day (Christian)
1 November - London to Brighton Veteran Car Run
2 November - All Souls Day (Christian)
5 November - Guy Fawkes
5 November - Lewes Bonfire Night
11 November – Armistice Day
13 November - Remembrance Sunday
14 November - The Prince of Wales' birthday
20 November - Stir-up Sunday (last Sunday of the Christian Church Year)
27 November - Advent Sunday (Christian)

DECEMBER
TBC - Trafalgar Square Christmas Tree Lighting Ceremony
24 December - A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols
24 December - Christmas Eve
25 December - Christmas Day (Christian)
26 December - Boxing Day
26 December - St Stephen's Day
31 December - New Year’s Eve

English Folklore

The Robin Hood statue outside the castle Nottingham,
England.

Folklore refers to the tradition of telling tales and reliving legends amongst the individuals within a particular country, territory or tribe. This is usually done orally as older generations tell the stories to the younger members of their culture, keeping the traditions alive. As with all folklore, English legends are fantastical in nature, often referring to heroes, villains, ghosts, imps and fairies.

England’s folklore has been enriched by several factors. First, its history has been a complex and convoluted one. It has seen many battles, losses, victories, religious revolutions, artistic renaissances and political upheavals. This gives its folklores an element of deep import and nostalgia; some sad, some tragic, and some undeniably comical. Secondly, England has been the land of refuge and desire for many different nations. As each one of these major groups has lived in it, they have left their cultural and historical marks, influencing the locals to a certain degree. With so many influences, the folklore has become a rich source of information, intrigue and resonance. Folklores differ from region to region. Each county has its own brand of fairies, goddesses, heroes, and so on.

In times past, folklore was passed down orally, from generation to generation. In this way, it was preserved and protected, and formed an important part of the culture. The storytellers and listeners believed these tales to be true, basing many of their customs and rituals on protecting themselves, appeasing certain gods, keeping imps away, etc...However, as culture has developed and modernised, the folklores are being forgotten and discredited, losing their magical quality. Because it is such an important part of the country’s history, though, many historians are trying to preserve this element by recording as many tales as have been documented or remembered.

Some popular folklore tales include:

The Black Dog
A nocturnal apparition associated with the devil, this character most commonly makes its appearance in the folklore of the British Isles. When the Black Dog ghost was seen, its observers would believe it to be an indication of imminent death. It was larger than a normal dog and its eyes glowed in the darkness of night. It was usually said to be seen in places at which executions had taken place, at crossroads and on old pathways.

Tom Thumb
Tom Thumb is a thumb-sized hero that dates back to the 1500’s. Originally, he was intended to scare children, as horror tales about this tiny mite were told to them by their nursemaids, along with tales of witches, and so on. In the 17th century, tales of him portray him as a hero, rather than as a frightful villain.

Robin Hood
One of the best known English folklore characters in history, Robin Hood was a hero that stole from the rich and gave to the poor. He lived in Nottingham Forest with his Merry Men. As a gang, they would taunt and terrify the rich aristocrats, who had abused their power to become wealthy and powerful. They would steal their jewels and money and hand it out to those less fortunate. Since this time, many books, films and TV series have been made about this world-renowned folklore hero.


For more information, please view: http://www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/folklore/folktales/english-folktales.html and
http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/index.htm

English Cuisine

The traditional food of England has long been recognised for its simplicity of ingredients and flavour. However, England has a complex history and has featured as a major global player. This has meant that people from all over the world have settled in this country, bringing with them flavours and techniques. Over time, these foreign influences have permeated the English cuisine, creating a more multifaceted food culture than ever before.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, English Protestants formed a group called the Puritans. These ones were averse to strong flavours and bold ingredients (such as garlic, for example) as these had Catholic Continental political references. This led to a distinct simplification of English cuisine. As the Puritans moved between England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, they took their conservative ideas with them.

Then, after World War II, England saw the influx of other cultures and nationalities. As North Americans, Indians and Chinese immigrants flooded across the border, they introduced the locals to garlic, chilli, exotic sauces, and much more. Today, Thai, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French influences have also been incorporated into the English menus.

Traditionally, English food uses lamb, beef, pork, chicken and fish as its feature item. The meat is then accompanied by potatoes (in various forms) and one vegetable. Because all of these products are sourced within the country, they are of the best quality. Fruit and vegetables are amply available and of superior condition.

The following dishes are considered to be traditional in England:

Steak and kidney pie with peas and carrots

Roast beef
• Yorkshire Pudding (a dense batter that it baked and served with roast beef and gravy)
• Toad-in-the-Hole (sausage in the same batter used to make Yorkshire puddings, served with onion gravy)
• Fish and chips
• Ploughman's Lunch (a pub lunch that is made up of cheese, gherkins and pickled onions and served with chunks of fresh bread)
• Cottage Pie & Shepherd's Pie (mince and mash pies)
• Gammon steak with egg
• Lancashire Hotpot (a meat casserole topped with slices of potato before being baked)
• Bubble and Squeak (the vegetables that have been left over from a roast are mixed with mashed potato and shallow friend until both sides are brown. This is usually served with cold meat)
• English Breakfast (a full English Breakfast comprises bacon, eggs, tomatoes (fried or grilled), fried mushrooms, sausages and toast. This is traditionally served with tea, which is often replaced by coffee nowadays)
• Bangers and Mash (sausages and mashed potato, served with gravy. This dish was the staple meal of the working class for many decades, but has become a traditional favourite)
• Black Pudding (a sausage made of blood and a filler – fat, suet, potatoes, bread, etc... - that becomes congealed when cool)
• Spotted Dick (a steamed pudding with suet and dried fruit, served with custard or a home-made syrup)
• Trifle (layers of sponge cake, jelly, cream, jam and custard. Sometimes, alcohol and tinned fruit is added)
• Apple Crumble
• Semolina pudding (a creamy dessert made with eggs, milk and sugar, served with raisins and jam)
• Roly-poly (pastry dough smeared with jam or fruit, rolled into a wheel and baked)
• Sunday Roast (comprising roast beef, roast potatoes, vegetables and Yorkshire Pudding)
• Pies and pasties

Although English cuisine has had the reputation of being bland and predictable for many years, it is gaining international esteem as chefs develop these traditional dishes and flavours. “Fish ‘n chips” is no longer limited by its title, but can be made using a variety of game fish and other seafood, for example. This has meant a complete turnaround in the global perception of the food of this age-old country.



For more information, please view: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_cuisine